HOYSALAS
The founder of this dynasty was probably a kshatriya named Sala. The Hoyasalas emerged into prominence in 'about the beginning of the eleventh century AD. The Hoysalas attained a dominant position with the rule of Bittiga Vishnuvardhana (1110-1140). He transferred his capital from Velapura to Dwarasamudra (Halebid)and made himself independent of the Chalukyan suzerain, Vikramaditya VI. He is believed to have humbled the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Kadambas. The next important ruler of this house was Vira-Ballala I (1172-1215), who was the first to assume the title of Maharajadhiraja. The last Hoysala ruler was VU"a-Ballala III. The kingdom was ravaged by Malik Kafur (1310). Thus the Hoysala line came to an end around the middle of the fourteenth century AD.
The Hoysalas were great temple builders, supreme examples of which are the Kesava temple at Belur (in Hassan district) dedicated to Vishnu and the Hoysaleswara temple dedicated to Siva at Halebid (or Dwarasamudra). Continuing the Chalukyan style, rich decoration in the form of sculpted panels showing a panorama of life adorn the temples, indicating a close integration of life with religion. The ground plan was star-shaped or polygonal. The temple was built within this on a raised platform. Sandstone was given up in favour of the more tractable chloritic schist for construction. The pillars of the temples acquire a special shape owing to the practice of fashioning the monolithic blocks by turning them on a large lathe.
Friday, November 27, 2009
SILAHARAS and
SILAHARAS
There are three branches of the Silahara family known to history. They remained subordinate to the Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas and Yadavas, while ruling over Konkan; Goa, Than.a and Kolhapur were their various capitals. The most notable monarch of this line was Bhoja (1175-1210), after whom the kingdom was conquered by Singhana, the Yadava ruler.
KADAMBAS
The Kadambas were brahmans. It is believed that the founder of this dynasty was May~asarman who, being annoyed by the Pallavas, established his rule in Karnataka with Banavasi as his seat of government. It was during the reign of Kakusthavarman that Kadamba dominion and influence grew considerably. The next ruler was Ravivarman, with his capital at HaisL The rise of the Chalukyas of Vatapi gave a severe blow to Kadamba ambitions and Pulakesin I and Pulakesin II conquered large parts of their dominion. But the family re-emerged after the decline of the Rashtrakutas in the last quarter of the tenth century AD.
There are three branches of the Silahara family known to history. They remained subordinate to the Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas and Yadavas, while ruling over Konkan; Goa, Than.a and Kolhapur were their various capitals. The most notable monarch of this line was Bhoja (1175-1210), after whom the kingdom was conquered by Singhana, the Yadava ruler.
KADAMBAS
The Kadambas were brahmans. It is believed that the founder of this dynasty was May~asarman who, being annoyed by the Pallavas, established his rule in Karnataka with Banavasi as his seat of government. It was during the reign of Kakusthavarman that Kadamba dominion and influence grew considerably. The next ruler was Ravivarman, with his capital at HaisL The rise of the Chalukyas of Vatapi gave a severe blow to Kadamba ambitions and Pulakesin I and Pulakesin II conquered large parts of their dominion. But the family re-emerged after the decline of the Rashtrakutas in the last quarter of the tenth century AD.
KAKATIYAS
KAKATIYAS
The Kakatiyas were at first feudatories of the Latel Chalukyas, after whose decline they rose to power i~ Telengana. Their seat of power was shifted from Anmakonda to Warangal. Their first prominent ruler was Prolaraja, whc distinguished himself in warfare against the Western Chalukyas and ruled for a long time. Under Ganapati, who ascended the throne in 1199, the Kakatiyas rose into prominence. Ganapati successfully overcame the Cholas. Kalingas, Yadavas, Karnata Lata and Valanadu.
He was succeeded by his daughter, Rudramba, in 1261. She ruled sagaciously and assumed ,the. male title of Rudradeva Maharaja. She was succeeded by her grandson, Prataparudradeva, who has been immortalised by Vaidyanatha's Prata-Parudriya-a work of poetics dedicated to him. Prataparudra ultimately had to submit before the Muslim invader, Malik Kafur. The Kakatiyas were eventually overpowered by the Bahmani Sultans of the Deccan.
The Kakatiyas were at first feudatories of the Latel Chalukyas, after whose decline they rose to power i~ Telengana. Their seat of power was shifted from Anmakonda to Warangal. Their first prominent ruler was Prolaraja, whc distinguished himself in warfare against the Western Chalukyas and ruled for a long time. Under Ganapati, who ascended the throne in 1199, the Kakatiyas rose into prominence. Ganapati successfully overcame the Cholas. Kalingas, Yadavas, Karnata Lata and Valanadu.
He was succeeded by his daughter, Rudramba, in 1261. She ruled sagaciously and assumed ,the. male title of Rudradeva Maharaja. She was succeeded by her grandson, Prataparudradeva, who has been immortalised by Vaidyanatha's Prata-Parudriya-a work of poetics dedicated to him. Prataparudra ultimately had to submit before the Muslim invader, Malik Kafur. The Kakatiyas were eventually overpowered by the Bahmani Sultans of the Deccan.
YADAVAS
YADAVAS
The Yadavas are believed to be the descendants of the Yadl race to which belonged the lv1ahnbhnrata hero, Krishna. I was after the decline of the Chalukyas of Kalyani that the] rose into prominence. The first noteworthy figure of thl dynasty was Bhillama V. He made Devagiri his capital. Bu he was defeated by Vira-Ballala I Hoysala at the battle 0 Lakhul1di. His successor was Jaitrapala I (1191-1210) wh( killed the Kakatiya ruler, Rudradeva. The most energetil ruler of this dynasty was Singhana (1210 to 1247).
It wai during the reign of Mahadeva and Ramachandra that thl great brahrnan minister, Hemadri, renowned for his Hindi Dhnrmashnstras, flourished. His most important work is thE Chnturvarga-Chintamani. He is also said to have introducee a special form of temple architecture in the Deccan. It wa~ during the reign of Ramachandra that the army led by Alaud-din Khalji, then governor of Kara, invaded Devagiri ir 1294. The Yadava rule came to an end when Harapala waf killed at the behest of Sultan Mubarak.
The Yadavas are believed to be the descendants of the Yadl race to which belonged the lv1ahnbhnrata hero, Krishna. I was after the decline of the Chalukyas of Kalyani that the] rose into prominence. The first noteworthy figure of thl dynasty was Bhillama V. He made Devagiri his capital. Bu he was defeated by Vira-Ballala I Hoysala at the battle 0 Lakhul1di. His successor was Jaitrapala I (1191-1210) wh( killed the Kakatiya ruler, Rudradeva. The most energetil ruler of this dynasty was Singhana (1210 to 1247).
It wai during the reign of Mahadeva and Ramachandra that thl great brahrnan minister, Hemadri, renowned for his Hindi Dhnrmashnstras, flourished. His most important work is thE Chnturvarga-Chintamani. He is also said to have introducee a special form of temple architecture in the Deccan. It wa~ during the reign of Ramachandra that the army led by Alaud-din Khalji, then governor of Kara, invaded Devagiri ir 1294. The Yadava rule came to an end when Harapala waf killed at the behest of Sultan Mubarak.
GANGAS
GANGAS
The Gangas are believed to have either belonged to the lim of Ikshvakus, or associated with the river Ganga or witl the Kanvas. The kingdom of the Gangas included thE greater part of Mysore and was called Gangavadi. It wai founded by Didiga (Konganivarman) and Madhava some time in the fourth century AD. Its early capital was Kuluva1c but later the capital was transferred to Talkad by Harivarma A notable Ganga ruler was Durvinita who distinguisee himself in warfare with the Pallavas.
But in the eighth ane ninth centuries, they had to encounter conflict with thl Chalukyas of Vengi and the Rashtrakuta ruler, Dhruve Nirupama. Later, the Gangas were involved in fighting wit! the Cholas and by 1004, Talkad was captured and Gange sovereignty ended. Most of the Ganga rulers were devotee: of Jainism. It was during the reign of Rajamala IV (977-985) that his minister and general, Chamundaraya, a devotee Jain, erected the celebrated image of Gomateshvara a Sravanabelagola in 983. The 58-feet-high statue occupies e special place among the sculptures of the world.
The Gangas are believed to have either belonged to the lim of Ikshvakus, or associated with the river Ganga or witl the Kanvas. The kingdom of the Gangas included thE greater part of Mysore and was called Gangavadi. It wai founded by Didiga (Konganivarman) and Madhava some time in the fourth century AD. Its early capital was Kuluva1c but later the capital was transferred to Talkad by Harivarma A notable Ganga ruler was Durvinita who distinguisee himself in warfare with the Pallavas.
But in the eighth ane ninth centuries, they had to encounter conflict with thl Chalukyas of Vengi and the Rashtrakuta ruler, Dhruve Nirupama. Later, the Gangas were involved in fighting wit! the Cholas and by 1004, Talkad was captured and Gange sovereignty ended. Most of the Ganga rulers were devotee: of Jainism. It was during the reign of Rajamala IV (977-985) that his minister and general, Chamundaraya, a devotee Jain, erected the celebrated image of Gomateshvara a Sravanabelagola in 983. The 58-feet-high statue occupies e special place among the sculptures of the world.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF RASHTRAKUTAS
ACHIEVEMENTS OF RASHTRAKUTAS
The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of art and literature. Krishna I built the famous rock-cut Kailasa temple at Ellora in the latter half of the eighth century AD. It was constructed in the Dravidian style of the Chalukyas and elaborately carve( with fine sculptures. Probably in the second half of thi eighth century, on an island near the west coast, was buil the cave shrine of Elephanta.
It was dedicated to Siva whose image as Mahesha (popularly known as Trimurti) counts amongst the most magnificent art creations of India The three faces represent Siva as Creator, Preserver am Destroyer. In the field of literature too, there was progress Amoghavarsha is said to have written the earliest book OJ poems in Kannada.
The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of art and literature. Krishna I built the famous rock-cut Kailasa temple at Ellora in the latter half of the eighth century AD. It was constructed in the Dravidian style of the Chalukyas and elaborately carve( with fine sculptures. Probably in the second half of thi eighth century, on an island near the west coast, was buil the cave shrine of Elephanta.
It was dedicated to Siva whose image as Mahesha (popularly known as Trimurti) counts amongst the most magnificent art creations of India The three faces represent Siva as Creator, Preserver am Destroyer. In the field of literature too, there was progress Amoghavarsha is said to have written the earliest book OJ poems in Kannada.
RASHTRAKUTAS
RASHTRAKUTAS
The origin of the Rashtrakutas is obscure. The founder of the rule was Dantidurga, who overthrew the Chalukyas of Badami in about the middle of the eighth century AD. He was succeeded by his uncle, Krishna I (758-772). Krishna was succeeded by his son Govinda II (773-780). He was deposed by his younger brother Dhruva Nirupama. The period of Dhruva is regarded as the peak of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He succeeded in establishing his rull:: in the Deccan. Dhruva's death or abdication in 793 was followed by a 'war of succession.
The Rashtrakuta territories ultimately came to his son, Govinda III Jagattunga (793-814). Govinda III was succeeded by his son, Sarva, known as Amoghavarsha I (814-878), who is said to have built the city of Manyakheta as his capital. The last great ruler of the dynasty was Krishna III (939-967), who occupied Kanchi and Tanjore and defeated a Chola army at the battle of Takkolam in 949 and even annexed a part of the Chola kingdom. After 967, the Rashtrakutas declined as their rulers were weak. They were replaced by the later Chalukyas. The Rashtrakutas were involved in the famous tripartite struggle for Kanauj. (Refer to Chapter 11 in this section.)
The origin of the Rashtrakutas is obscure. The founder of the rule was Dantidurga, who overthrew the Chalukyas of Badami in about the middle of the eighth century AD. He was succeeded by his uncle, Krishna I (758-772). Krishna was succeeded by his son Govinda II (773-780). He was deposed by his younger brother Dhruva Nirupama. The period of Dhruva is regarded as the peak of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He succeeded in establishing his rull:: in the Deccan. Dhruva's death or abdication in 793 was followed by a 'war of succession.
The Rashtrakuta territories ultimately came to his son, Govinda III Jagattunga (793-814). Govinda III was succeeded by his son, Sarva, known as Amoghavarsha I (814-878), who is said to have built the city of Manyakheta as his capital. The last great ruler of the dynasty was Krishna III (939-967), who occupied Kanchi and Tanjore and defeated a Chola army at the battle of Takkolam in 949 and even annexed a part of the Chola kingdom. After 967, the Rashtrakutas declined as their rulers were weak. They were replaced by the later Chalukyas. The Rashtrakutas were involved in the famous tripartite struggle for Kanauj. (Refer to Chapter 11 in this section.)
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE CHALUKYAS
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE CHALUKYAS
The Chalukyan kings were great patrons of art and letters. Much of the paintings and sculptures of the Ajanta and Ellora caves were completed during their reign. The Chalukyan style of temple architecture equated with the vesara (also, Karnataka) style is seen as an admixture of the Dravida and Nagara styles of temple architecture. Like the Dravida style, the Chalukyan style of temples has two principal componentsthe vimana and the mandappa, joined by an antarala. But the covered ambulatory around the sanctum is absent. Rathn offsets break up the exterior walls in Nagara fashion but these walls are further spaced at regular intervals by pilaster after the Dravida fashion. The temples are characterised by plastic ornamentation on their external surfaces and intricately carved pillars, ceilings and door frames. Famous temples include the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, near Badami, the Vishnu temple of Badami, the Siva temple of Maguti and the Kashi Visveswara temple of Lakhundi.
The Chalukyan kings patronised learning and literature also. The famous scholars of their time include Bilhana, a Sanskrit writer of works such as Vikramankadeva-chnrita and the poem, Chaurapanchnsika, and Vijnanesvara who wrote the Mitaksara.
The Chalukyan kings were great patrons of art and letters. Much of the paintings and sculptures of the Ajanta and Ellora caves were completed during their reign. The Chalukyan style of temple architecture equated with the vesara (also, Karnataka) style is seen as an admixture of the Dravida and Nagara styles of temple architecture. Like the Dravida style, the Chalukyan style of temples has two principal componentsthe vimana and the mandappa, joined by an antarala. But the covered ambulatory around the sanctum is absent. Rathn offsets break up the exterior walls in Nagara fashion but these walls are further spaced at regular intervals by pilaster after the Dravida fashion. The temples are characterised by plastic ornamentation on their external surfaces and intricately carved pillars, ceilings and door frames. Famous temples include the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, near Badami, the Vishnu temple of Badami, the Siva temple of Maguti and the Kashi Visveswara temple of Lakhundi.
The Chalukyan kings patronised learning and literature also. The famous scholars of their time include Bilhana, a Sanskrit writer of works such as Vikramankadeva-chnrita and the poem, Chaurapanchnsika, and Vijnanesvara who wrote the Mitaksara.
WESTERN CHALUKYAS OF KALYANI
WESTERN CHALUKYAS OF KALYANI
The later Chalukyas who ruled over Kalyani claim descent from the main line of Chalukyas of Vatapi. The kingdom was reestablished by Taila II in 973, when he defeated the last Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha IV. During his rule (973997), he brought under his control extensive territories, including southern part of the Paramara kingdom of Malwa. Somesvara I (1043-1068) was involved in a protracted war with the Cholas and was finally defeated by the Chola ruler, Virarajendra, in the battle of Kudal. Somesvara IT ~10681076), a tyrannical ruler, was overthrown by his brother, V1kramaditya IT Tribhuvanamalla (1076-1126)-the hero of Bilhana's Vikramankadeva-charita.
He was undoubtedly the greatest ruler of the Western Chalukyas. He introduced the Chalukya-Vikrama era (1076 AD). He successfully fought against the Chalukyas of Anhilwara, the Cholas and the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana. He is said to have sent an embassy to Ceylon. With the death of ]agadekamalla IT, the Chalukyan power was eclipsed and the throne was usurped by the Kalachuri minister of war, Vijjala or Vijjana. With the rise of the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Hoysalas, the Chalukyan dynasty ceased to exist by the middle of the thirteenth century.
The later Chalukyas who ruled over Kalyani claim descent from the main line of Chalukyas of Vatapi. The kingdom was reestablished by Taila II in 973, when he defeated the last Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha IV. During his rule (973997), he brought under his control extensive territories, including southern part of the Paramara kingdom of Malwa. Somesvara I (1043-1068) was involved in a protracted war with the Cholas and was finally defeated by the Chola ruler, Virarajendra, in the battle of Kudal. Somesvara IT ~10681076), a tyrannical ruler, was overthrown by his brother, V1kramaditya IT Tribhuvanamalla (1076-1126)-the hero of Bilhana's Vikramankadeva-charita.
He was undoubtedly the greatest ruler of the Western Chalukyas. He introduced the Chalukya-Vikrama era (1076 AD). He successfully fought against the Chalukyas of Anhilwara, the Cholas and the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana. He is said to have sent an embassy to Ceylon. With the death of ]agadekamalla IT, the Chalukyan power was eclipsed and the throne was usurped by the Kalachuri minister of war, Vijjala or Vijjana. With the rise of the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Hoysalas, the Chalukyan dynasty ceased to exist by the middle of the thirteenth century.
CHALUKYAS
CHALUKYAS
The Chalukyas grew powerful in the Deccan towards the middle of the sixth century AD. They were probably kshatriyas from Ayodhya. The dynasty had two branches, viz., Vatapi (Badami) and Kalyani. The Chalukyas of Vatapi ruled during 550-753. After a lapse of 200 years, the rule of the second branch of the Chalukyas of Kalyani began. Their reign lasted for about 200 years (793-1190).
CHALUKYAS OF VATAPI (BADAMI) The rule of this dynasty began in the early sixth century AD, and its first two rulers were ayasingha and Ranaraja. But the first independent ruler was Pulakesin I (535-566). He founded the fort of Vatapi in Bijapur district of Karnataka. The most famous ruler of the dynasty was Pulakesin II (611-642), also known as Satyasraya, who was a contemporary of Harshavardhana. From the Aihole inscription in Sanskrit it comes to light that there was much external and internal disturbance which he overcame with little effort. Pulakesin IT established his influence over the whole of Deccan from the Narmada to the Kaveri (Cauveri). He entered into a matrimonial alliance with the Gangas and thus strengthened his position. The greatest achievement of Pulakesin II was his victory over Harshavardhana in 620.
The Chalukyas were involved in a long battle with the Pallavas over Vengi. Pulakesin IT defeated the Pallava king, Mahendra Varman I. He was able to unify a large part of south India. He made himself the master of three great kingdomsMaharashtra, Konkan and Kamata. He was probably killed by the Pallava king, Narasimhavarman in 642. With his death followed a temporary decline of Chalukya power. His son, Vikramaditya (655-681 AD), succeeded in recovering his paternal dominions from the grip of the Pallavas. Vikramaditya II (733-746) once more defeated the Pallava kings. But his son Kirtivarman IT (746-757) lost Maharashtra to the Rashtrakuta chief, Dantidurga, and the sovereignty of the Chalukyas came to an end in about 757. Their long struggle with the Pallavas exhausted the strength of the Chalukyas and led to their ultimate fall.
EASTERN CHALUKYAS OF VENGI This dynasty was founded by Pulakesin IT's brother, Kubja-Vishnu-Vardhana, who transferred his capital from Pishtapura to the ancient city of Vengi in Andhra. Hostilities between the Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas of Vengi were strong. Vijayaditya ill (848892) is credited with victories over the Pallavas, the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas. The power of the Eastern Chalukyas was weakened in the tenth century AD and they became the allies of the Cholas. Kulottunga Chola annexed the kingdom in 1076.
The Chalukyas grew powerful in the Deccan towards the middle of the sixth century AD. They were probably kshatriyas from Ayodhya. The dynasty had two branches, viz., Vatapi (Badami) and Kalyani. The Chalukyas of Vatapi ruled during 550-753. After a lapse of 200 years, the rule of the second branch of the Chalukyas of Kalyani began. Their reign lasted for about 200 years (793-1190).
CHALUKYAS OF VATAPI (BADAMI) The rule of this dynasty began in the early sixth century AD, and its first two rulers were ayasingha and Ranaraja. But the first independent ruler was Pulakesin I (535-566). He founded the fort of Vatapi in Bijapur district of Karnataka. The most famous ruler of the dynasty was Pulakesin II (611-642), also known as Satyasraya, who was a contemporary of Harshavardhana. From the Aihole inscription in Sanskrit it comes to light that there was much external and internal disturbance which he overcame with little effort. Pulakesin IT established his influence over the whole of Deccan from the Narmada to the Kaveri (Cauveri). He entered into a matrimonial alliance with the Gangas and thus strengthened his position. The greatest achievement of Pulakesin II was his victory over Harshavardhana in 620.
The Chalukyas were involved in a long battle with the Pallavas over Vengi. Pulakesin IT defeated the Pallava king, Mahendra Varman I. He was able to unify a large part of south India. He made himself the master of three great kingdomsMaharashtra, Konkan and Kamata. He was probably killed by the Pallava king, Narasimhavarman in 642. With his death followed a temporary decline of Chalukya power. His son, Vikramaditya (655-681 AD), succeeded in recovering his paternal dominions from the grip of the Pallavas. Vikramaditya II (733-746) once more defeated the Pallava kings. But his son Kirtivarman IT (746-757) lost Maharashtra to the Rashtrakuta chief, Dantidurga, and the sovereignty of the Chalukyas came to an end in about 757. Their long struggle with the Pallavas exhausted the strength of the Chalukyas and led to their ultimate fall.
EASTERN CHALUKYAS OF VENGI This dynasty was founded by Pulakesin IT's brother, Kubja-Vishnu-Vardhana, who transferred his capital from Pishtapura to the ancient city of Vengi in Andhra. Hostilities between the Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas of Vengi were strong. Vijayaditya ill (848892) is credited with victories over the Pallavas, the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas. The power of the Eastern Chalukyas was weakened in the tenth century AD and they became the allies of the Cholas. Kulottunga Chola annexed the kingdom in 1076.
SMALL KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN
SMALL KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN
After the decline of the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas and Ikshvakus rose to power.
THE V AKATAKAS The Vakatakas came to control parts of the Deccan and central India till the rise of the Chalukyas. It is probable that they originally belonged to Bundelkhand. The founder of this brahman dynasty was Vindhyasakti. His son, Pravarasena I, ruled over territories extending from Bundelkhand to Andhra Pradesh. His successor, Prithvisena, was probably a contemporary of the great Gupta emperor, Samudragupta. Chandragupta IT Vikramaditya is said to have given his daughter, Prabhavati, in marriage to the Vakataka king, Rudrasena II. Harisena, who belonged to a minor branch of the Vakataka dynasty, reigned towards the close of the fifth century AD. He is said to have made extensive conquests. The Vakataka power was destroyed by the Kalachuris and the Kadambas towards the middle of the sixth century AD.
The Vakatakas patronised art and literature to a great extent. It is probable that some of the Ajanta cave fresco paintings were excavated during their rule.
IKSHVAKUS After the fall of the Satavahanas, there arose the Ikshvakus in the eastern part of the Peninsula. They built monuments at Nagarjunakonda and Dharanikonda. They began providing lands as grants in the Krishna-Guntur region, where their copper-plate charters have been found. Their rule ended with their conquest by
the Pallavas.
After the decline of the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas and Ikshvakus rose to power.
THE V AKATAKAS The Vakatakas came to control parts of the Deccan and central India till the rise of the Chalukyas. It is probable that they originally belonged to Bundelkhand. The founder of this brahman dynasty was Vindhyasakti. His son, Pravarasena I, ruled over territories extending from Bundelkhand to Andhra Pradesh. His successor, Prithvisena, was probably a contemporary of the great Gupta emperor, Samudragupta. Chandragupta IT Vikramaditya is said to have given his daughter, Prabhavati, in marriage to the Vakataka king, Rudrasena II. Harisena, who belonged to a minor branch of the Vakataka dynasty, reigned towards the close of the fifth century AD. He is said to have made extensive conquests. The Vakataka power was destroyed by the Kalachuris and the Kadambas towards the middle of the sixth century AD.
The Vakatakas patronised art and literature to a great extent. It is probable that some of the Ajanta cave fresco paintings were excavated during their rule.
IKSHVAKUS After the fall of the Satavahanas, there arose the Ikshvakus in the eastern part of the Peninsula. They built monuments at Nagarjunakonda and Dharanikonda. They began providing lands as grants in the Krishna-Guntur region, where their copper-plate charters have been found. Their rule ended with their conquest by
the Pallavas.
HARSHA'S DEATH AND ITS EFFECT
HARSHA'S DEATH AND ITS EFFECT
After the death of Harsha in 647, the empire once again broke up into petty states. In Kashmir, Durlabhavarman established a dynasty known as Karakota. King Bhaskarvarman established a kingdom in Murshidabad district of Bengal. Adityasena ruled Magadha. The kingdoms of the Deccan and the south had become powerful by now.
After the death of Harsha in 647, the empire once again broke up into petty states. In Kashmir, Durlabhavarman established a dynasty known as Karakota. King Bhaskarvarman established a kingdom in Murshidabad district of Bengal. Adityasena ruled Magadha. The kingdoms of the Deccan and the south had become powerful by now.
POLITY AND SOCIETY UNDER HARSHA
POLITY AND SOCIETY UNDER HARSHA
Harsha's administration was based largely on his magnetic personality as well as on his benevolent attitude and ceaseless exertion. Harsha controlled the machinery of government with the help of a central ministry and a secretariat comprising various departments. The provinces (bhukti) were divided into districts (vishaya). The village was the lowest unit of administration. The administration was feudal and more decentralised than before. Taxation was light. Criminal law was more severe than it had been in the Gupta period. Hsuan- Tsang says that there was a rigid caste system. Under Harsha, Kanauj became the premier city of northern India and eclipsed the glory of Pataliputra. Hsuan-Tsang has left a detailed account of a grand assembly held at Kanauj in 643 attended by representatives of Hinduism and Jainism besides kings.
Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival at Prayag (Allahabad), at the end of every five years. Hsuan-Tsang was a witness to the sixth such quinquennial festival, which lasted for 75 days.
Harsha's ancestors were worshippers of the sun. Epigraphic evidence shows that Harsha was a devotee of Siva, at least for the first 25 years of his reign. Towards the later part of his life, however, he was attracted towards Buddhism.
Harsha was a great patron of learning. He made large endowments to Nalanda, the world famous centre of learning. He further extended patronage to men of literature and was himself a poet of no mean repute. His court was adorned by Banabhatta, the author of Harshacharita and Kadambari. Harsha himself wrote three well-known dramas: the Ratnavali, the Nagananda and the Priyadarshika.
Harsha's administration was based largely on his magnetic personality as well as on his benevolent attitude and ceaseless exertion. Harsha controlled the machinery of government with the help of a central ministry and a secretariat comprising various departments. The provinces (bhukti) were divided into districts (vishaya). The village was the lowest unit of administration. The administration was feudal and more decentralised than before. Taxation was light. Criminal law was more severe than it had been in the Gupta period. Hsuan- Tsang says that there was a rigid caste system. Under Harsha, Kanauj became the premier city of northern India and eclipsed the glory of Pataliputra. Hsuan-Tsang has left a detailed account of a grand assembly held at Kanauj in 643 attended by representatives of Hinduism and Jainism besides kings.
Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival at Prayag (Allahabad), at the end of every five years. Hsuan-Tsang was a witness to the sixth such quinquennial festival, which lasted for 75 days.
Harsha's ancestors were worshippers of the sun. Epigraphic evidence shows that Harsha was a devotee of Siva, at least for the first 25 years of his reign. Towards the later part of his life, however, he was attracted towards Buddhism.
Harsha was a great patron of learning. He made large endowments to Nalanda, the world famous centre of learning. He further extended patronage to men of literature and was himself a poet of no mean repute. His court was adorned by Banabhatta, the author of Harshacharita and Kadambari. Harsha himself wrote three well-known dramas: the Ratnavali, the Nagananda and the Priyadarshika.
Archaeological Sources
Archaeological Sources Inscriptions and seals of Harsha's period are important archaeological sources.
Inscriptions Banskhera is situated in the Shahjahanpur district of Uttar Pradesrr. An inscription dated AD 628 was found here in 1894. This inscription gives a lot of information regarding Harsha. The inscription says that Harsha had granted Markatsagar village to two brahmans-Balachandra and Bhattaswami. This also speaks of the victory of Rajyavardhana over the Malwa king Devagupta and the murder of Devagupta by Sasanka.
Madhuban is situated in Ghoshi tehsil of Ajamgarh district of Uttar Pradesh. A Harsha inscription dated AD 631 has been found here. It mentions the grant of Somkunda village by Harsha.
The Aihole inscription of the Chalukya king Pulakesin II is dated AD 633-34. The inscription deals with the war between Harshavardhana and Pulakesin II. The inscription was written by Ravi Kirti, a court poet of Pulakesin.
Seals Two seals of Harsha have been found in Nalanda (Bihar) and Sonepat. One is of clay, while the other is of copper. These seals contain the names of all the kings, from Rajyavardhana I to Harshavardhana, of the Vardhana dynasty. It is the Sonepat seal which gives Harshavardhana as the full name of Harsha.
According to Bana's HarsMcharita, the predecessors of Harshavardhana were all rulers of the land of Srikantha (Thaneswar). The Pushyabhuti kingdom, as it was known, was founded by Naravardhana around the close of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century. It was under Prabhakaravardhana that the kingdom grew in both territory and influence. He entered into a matrimonial alliance by marrying his daughter Rajyasri to the Maukhari ruler, Grahavarman. Prabhakaravardhana died in 605 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Rajyavardhana. Just at the time of his accession he had to rush his army to Malwa as Devagupta, the king of Malwa, had murdered Grahavarman, the king of Kanauj, and imprisoned Rajyasri.
Rajyavardhana defeated Devagupta, but he fell fighting the Bengal king, Sasanka. Harsha, who was only 16 years old at that time, succeeded Rajyavardhana on the throne in AD 606. The first arduous task before him was to search for his sister Rajyasri, who had escaped from the clutches of Sasanka. Harsha is said to have found her when she was about to immolate herself. He returned to Kanauj with his sister and, on her refusal to take up the responsibility of ruling, decided to continue as ruler, on ~e advice of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, without any royal insignia.
\ Harsha's mastery over Kanauj greatly enhanced his power and prestige and he transferred his capital from Thaneswar to Kanauj. Harsha conquered the five kingdoms of northern India, viz., Punjab, Kanauj, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and thereby consolidated his position in North India. Harsha also defeated the king of Valabhi, Dhruvasena. He later married his daughter to Dhruvasena and thus extended his empire upto the coast of the Arabian Sea. Harsha now turned towards the Deccan. Here he came face to face with Pulakesin II, the Chalukyan ruler of Vatapi.
A battle I was fought between the two rulers on the banks of River 1 Narmada, in which the Chalukyan ruler came out victorious. Harsha's last campaign was against the Ganjam territory. Some historians also believe that Harsha had conquered the territories of Nepal, Sind and Kashmir. Pulakesin°II bestowed the title of Sakalottara-patha-natha-'the lord of the entire north' -on him. Harsha is said to have maintained diplomatic relations with China. In 641 AD, he sent a brahman envoy to China. Three Chinese missions subsequently visited his court.
HSUAN-TsANG The Chinese pilgrim, Hsuan-Tsang visited India during Harsha's reign. He set out in 629 at the age of 29, and passing through Tashkant and Samarqand, reached Gandhara in 630. He came to study at Nalanda and to collect Buddhist texts. He left India in 643. He spent about eight years (635-643) in the dominions of Harsha and earned his friendship.
Inscriptions Banskhera is situated in the Shahjahanpur district of Uttar Pradesrr. An inscription dated AD 628 was found here in 1894. This inscription gives a lot of information regarding Harsha. The inscription says that Harsha had granted Markatsagar village to two brahmans-Balachandra and Bhattaswami. This also speaks of the victory of Rajyavardhana over the Malwa king Devagupta and the murder of Devagupta by Sasanka.
Madhuban is situated in Ghoshi tehsil of Ajamgarh district of Uttar Pradesh. A Harsha inscription dated AD 631 has been found here. It mentions the grant of Somkunda village by Harsha.
The Aihole inscription of the Chalukya king Pulakesin II is dated AD 633-34. The inscription deals with the war between Harshavardhana and Pulakesin II. The inscription was written by Ravi Kirti, a court poet of Pulakesin.
Seals Two seals of Harsha have been found in Nalanda (Bihar) and Sonepat. One is of clay, while the other is of copper. These seals contain the names of all the kings, from Rajyavardhana I to Harshavardhana, of the Vardhana dynasty. It is the Sonepat seal which gives Harshavardhana as the full name of Harsha.
According to Bana's HarsMcharita, the predecessors of Harshavardhana were all rulers of the land of Srikantha (Thaneswar). The Pushyabhuti kingdom, as it was known, was founded by Naravardhana around the close of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century. It was under Prabhakaravardhana that the kingdom grew in both territory and influence. He entered into a matrimonial alliance by marrying his daughter Rajyasri to the Maukhari ruler, Grahavarman. Prabhakaravardhana died in 605 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Rajyavardhana. Just at the time of his accession he had to rush his army to Malwa as Devagupta, the king of Malwa, had murdered Grahavarman, the king of Kanauj, and imprisoned Rajyasri.
Rajyavardhana defeated Devagupta, but he fell fighting the Bengal king, Sasanka. Harsha, who was only 16 years old at that time, succeeded Rajyavardhana on the throne in AD 606. The first arduous task before him was to search for his sister Rajyasri, who had escaped from the clutches of Sasanka. Harsha is said to have found her when she was about to immolate herself. He returned to Kanauj with his sister and, on her refusal to take up the responsibility of ruling, decided to continue as ruler, on ~e advice of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, without any royal insignia.
\ Harsha's mastery over Kanauj greatly enhanced his power and prestige and he transferred his capital from Thaneswar to Kanauj. Harsha conquered the five kingdoms of northern India, viz., Punjab, Kanauj, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and thereby consolidated his position in North India. Harsha also defeated the king of Valabhi, Dhruvasena. He later married his daughter to Dhruvasena and thus extended his empire upto the coast of the Arabian Sea. Harsha now turned towards the Deccan. Here he came face to face with Pulakesin II, the Chalukyan ruler of Vatapi.
A battle I was fought between the two rulers on the banks of River 1 Narmada, in which the Chalukyan ruler came out victorious. Harsha's last campaign was against the Ganjam territory. Some historians also believe that Harsha had conquered the territories of Nepal, Sind and Kashmir. Pulakesin°II bestowed the title of Sakalottara-patha-natha-'the lord of the entire north' -on him. Harsha is said to have maintained diplomatic relations with China. In 641 AD, he sent a brahman envoy to China. Three Chinese missions subsequently visited his court.
HSUAN-TsANG The Chinese pilgrim, Hsuan-Tsang visited India during Harsha's reign. He set out in 629 at the age of 29, and passing through Tashkant and Samarqand, reached Gandhara in 630. He came to study at Nalanda and to collect Buddhist texts. He left India in 643. He spent about eight years (635-643) in the dominions of Harsha and earned his friendship.
HARSHAVARDHANA
SOURCES FOR THE HARSHAVARDHANA RULE There are mainly three important sources to understand the history of Harshavardhana and other rulers of the Vardhana dynasty: (i) literary sources, (ii) foreigners' accounts, and (Hi) archaeological findings. Harshavardhana, himself a great scholar,
was a patron of literature. Hence there is enough. literary information regarding his rule.
Literary Sources The main literary sources are as follows.
(i) Harshaclulrita Written in Sanskrit by Banabhatta, Harshacharita is an important book to understand Harsha's rule. This book has eight sections. While the first three sections cover the autobiography of Banabhatta, the remaining five describe the life history of Harshavardhana.
(ii) Kadambari Kadambari, written by Banabhatta, is considered the greatest novel of Sanskrit literature. The novel deals with social and religious life during the times of Harsha.
(iii) Aryamanjushreemulkalpa It is a Mahayana book with 1,000 hymns. It deals with the ancient Indian history covering the period between seventh century Be and eighth century AD.
Foreign Accounts Foreign travellers, mainly Chinese pilgrims, have left accounts of the time.
(i) Hsuan- Tsang's Account A Chinese pilgrim, HsuanTsang, spent about eight years in the dominions of Harsha and earned the king's friendship. Hsuan-Tsang's book SiYu-Ki throws light on political and cultural life in India during Harsha's times.
(ii) Biography of Hsuan- Tsang The biography of HsuanTsang was written by his friend Wu-Li. This book also makes available important information related to Harsha's period.
(Hi) I-tsing's Account I-tsing was a Chinese traveller. His description of the times is very useful. His accounts were translated into English by the Japanese Buddhist monk, Takkusu, under the title A Record of the Buddhist Religion.
was a patron of literature. Hence there is enough. literary information regarding his rule.
Literary Sources The main literary sources are as follows.
(i) Harshaclulrita Written in Sanskrit by Banabhatta, Harshacharita is an important book to understand Harsha's rule. This book has eight sections. While the first three sections cover the autobiography of Banabhatta, the remaining five describe the life history of Harshavardhana.
(ii) Kadambari Kadambari, written by Banabhatta, is considered the greatest novel of Sanskrit literature. The novel deals with social and religious life during the times of Harsha.
(iii) Aryamanjushreemulkalpa It is a Mahayana book with 1,000 hymns. It deals with the ancient Indian history covering the period between seventh century Be and eighth century AD.
Foreign Accounts Foreign travellers, mainly Chinese pilgrims, have left accounts of the time.
(i) Hsuan- Tsang's Account A Chinese pilgrim, HsuanTsang, spent about eight years in the dominions of Harsha and earned the king's friendship. Hsuan-Tsang's book SiYu-Ki throws light on political and cultural life in India during Harsha's times.
(ii) Biography of Hsuan- Tsang The biography of HsuanTsang was written by his friend Wu-Li. This book also makes available important information related to Harsha's period.
(Hi) I-tsing's Account I-tsing was a Chinese traveller. His description of the times is very useful. His accounts were translated into English by the Japanese Buddhist monk, Takkusu, under the title A Record of the Buddhist Religion.
North India and the Deccan after the Guptas
SMALL KINGDOMS IN THE NORTH
The Hunas faded out after Mihirakula. It is possible that they were slowly absorbed into Hindu society. Their invasion paved the way for political disintegration. After the Gupta empire broke up, north India was again divided into a number of petty independent states.
MAITRAKAS OF VALABHI In Saurashtra (Kathiawar), the ruling family belonged to the Maitraka clan. The founder of the kingdom was Bhatarka. The capital was Valabhi. In the seventh century, Dhruvasena II married the daughter of Harsha of Kanauj. It was probably during the time of Dhruvasena IV that the celebrated Sanskrit epic Bhattikavyam or Ravanavadham was composed by Bhatti. The kingdom was probably overthrown by the Arabs of Sind.
MAUKHARIS OF GAYA We get the names of three Maukhari kings mentioned in the Barabar and Nagarjuni inscriptions, who ruled in Gaya (Bihar) following the end of the Gupta rule. Yajnavarma was the first ruler of the Gaya branch of the Maukharis.
MAUKHARIS OF KANAUJ The Maukharis were probably kshatriyas. The most important branch of the family flourished in the Gangetic valley and is generally associated
with Kanauj. The first important member of thisbranch was Isanavarman who claimed victory over the Andhras, the Sulikas of Orissa, and the Gaudas. There was a long duel between the Maukharis and the 'Later Guptas'. The kingdom was finally merged with the kingdom of Thaneswar.
THE LATER GUPTAS They were at first feudatories of the Imperial Guptas. Those parts of the Gupta dominions which had not been formed into independent kingdoms came into their possession, and they became the residuary legatees of theGupta empire. The first powerful and independent, ruler of the dynasty was Kumara Gupta. However, the most powerful ruler was Adityasena, who took the title of Parama-Bhagavata and got a temple of Vishnu constructed. The rule of the later Guptas came to an end towards the middle of the eighth century AD. The Apsad inscription from Gaya gives the name of eight late-Gupta kings.
GAUDAS OF BENGAL The greatest king of this dynasty was Sasanka who fought against th~ rulers of Thaneswar and Kanauj. Sasanka had entered into an alliance with Devagupta of Malwa to remove Grahavarman, the Maukhari ruler. However, not much is known about the history of the Gaudas
before and after Sasanka.
The Hunas faded out after Mihirakula. It is possible that they were slowly absorbed into Hindu society. Their invasion paved the way for political disintegration. After the Gupta empire broke up, north India was again divided into a number of petty independent states.
MAITRAKAS OF VALABHI In Saurashtra (Kathiawar), the ruling family belonged to the Maitraka clan. The founder of the kingdom was Bhatarka. The capital was Valabhi. In the seventh century, Dhruvasena II married the daughter of Harsha of Kanauj. It was probably during the time of Dhruvasena IV that the celebrated Sanskrit epic Bhattikavyam or Ravanavadham was composed by Bhatti. The kingdom was probably overthrown by the Arabs of Sind.
MAUKHARIS OF GAYA We get the names of three Maukhari kings mentioned in the Barabar and Nagarjuni inscriptions, who ruled in Gaya (Bihar) following the end of the Gupta rule. Yajnavarma was the first ruler of the Gaya branch of the Maukharis.
MAUKHARIS OF KANAUJ The Maukharis were probably kshatriyas. The most important branch of the family flourished in the Gangetic valley and is generally associated
with Kanauj. The first important member of thisbranch was Isanavarman who claimed victory over the Andhras, the Sulikas of Orissa, and the Gaudas. There was a long duel between the Maukharis and the 'Later Guptas'. The kingdom was finally merged with the kingdom of Thaneswar.
THE LATER GUPTAS They were at first feudatories of the Imperial Guptas. Those parts of the Gupta dominions which had not been formed into independent kingdoms came into their possession, and they became the residuary legatees of theGupta empire. The first powerful and independent, ruler of the dynasty was Kumara Gupta. However, the most powerful ruler was Adityasena, who took the title of Parama-Bhagavata and got a temple of Vishnu constructed. The rule of the later Guptas came to an end towards the middle of the eighth century AD. The Apsad inscription from Gaya gives the name of eight late-Gupta kings.
GAUDAS OF BENGAL The greatest king of this dynasty was Sasanka who fought against th~ rulers of Thaneswar and Kanauj. Sasanka had entered into an alliance with Devagupta of Malwa to remove Grahavarman, the Maukhari ruler. However, not much is known about the history of the Gaudas
before and after Sasanka.
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